Verifier

Relevant source files

The verifier is the only producer of VerifiedProgram values. Verifier::verify_with_stats(prog_type, insns, config) returns a BpfProgram plus VerifyStats (states_explored, wcet_cycles, and the proven-constant referenced_map_handles). The kernel manager calls it on every load and again at every attach.

Phases

The ordering is deliberate: profile structural constraints (loop-freedom, forbidden helpers, the WCET budget) run before path-sensitive exploration, so an over-budget or looping embedded program is rejected without paying exploration cost, and the WCET check cannot be masked by the explorer’s state cap.

Control-flow graph

ControlFlowGraph::build computes basic-block leaders, edges, back edges, exit points, and a compressed-sparse-row successor table so successors(i) is proportional to out-degree. This keeps liveness, reachability and WCET passes linear. Any instruction that is not reachable (other than wide-instruction continuations) is UnreachableInstruction.

Abstract state

Each register carries a type from the RegType lattice (NotInit, Scalar, PtrToStack, PtrToMapValue, PtrToMapKey, PtrToCtx, PtrToPacket*, ConstPtrToMap, PtrToFp, NullPtr) and, for scalars, a ScalarValue that combines a known-bits TnumValue with an unsigned interval. Pointers returned by map lookup and ring buffer reserve are maybe-null until a null check clears the flag on the taken branch. Stack state is sparse (StackState), so only touched slots cost memory.

Module	Role
`alu.rs`	Constant folding and tnum propagation through ALU ops, with 32-bit width semantics
`refine.rs`	Tightens scalar ranges on each arm of a conditional branch
`pruner.rs`	State subsumption: skip a path if an earlier state at the same pc covers it
`liveness.rs`	Backward dataflow so differences in dead registers do not block pruning
`map_policy.rs`	Map value sizes, generation-checked handles, and read/write permission checks

The pruner retains at most 8192 states in total (DEFAULT_MAX_STATES) and 64 per program counter (DEFAULT_MAX_STATES_PER_PC). Exceeding the total yields StateLimitExceeded. Exploration uses an explicit worklist rather than recursion, so verification does not grow the kernel stack with branch nesting.

What is checked

Structure: empty program, no exit, instruction count over MAX_INSN_COUNT, invalid opcodes, registers above 10, invalid jump targets.
Registers: use of uninitialized registers, writes to r10 (the frame pointer), division by a provably zero divisor (including after 32-bit truncation).
Memory: stack, context and map-value accesses are bounds-checked against sizes supplied in VerifyConfig; dereferencing a maybe-null pointer is rejected (MisalignedAccess exists as an error variant; its exact trigger conditions were not traced for this page). With the zero-config verify() entry, context and map-value accesses are rejected because no region size is known.
Context size: R1 is bounded to size_of::<BpfContext>() for every hook; the per-hook payload reached through BpfContext::data is bounded by ctx_data_size (see Hooks).
Helpers: ID must be known and available in the active profile, argument count and register types must match the signature, and the caller must satisfy the helper’s tier (below).
Maps: constant map handles must resolve in the generation-checked table; a lookup yields exactly that map’s value size; a dynamic handle is bounded to the smallest map and is rejected if any map is unavailable or write-only. Mutating helpers (map_update_elem, map_delete_elem, ringbuf_output, timeseries_push) require a provably writable map handle; stores through a read-only lookup are rejected.
Stack: computed maximum depth must fit the profile (StackExceeded).

Caller tiers and helper policy

VerifyConfig carries caller (Unprivileged, Privileged, Trusted), allow_actuation, and forbid_logging_helpers. A helper signature can set a minimum tier, require actuation authority, or be marked as possibly logging. verify_call raises HelperRequiresPrivilege, ActuationCapabilityRequired or LoggingHelperForbidden accordingly. The helper table is on Maps and Helpers.

WCET bound and admission

cost.rs assigns a static cost in relative cycle units to each instruction and computes the program’s WCET as a fixed invocation base (95 units) plus the longest path through the loop-free CFG, using a single reverse dynamic-programming pass.

Instruction class	Cost
Default (cheap ALU, jump, mov, exit)	1
Memory load/store	2
Division and modulo	2
Helper: counter reads (ktime, cpu id, prandom, pid, uid, latency, boot time, heap, image, sensor timestamp)	4
Helper: copies and device access (probe_read, comm, GPIO, PWM, IIO, CAN)	10
Helper: ring buffer (output, reserve, submit, discard)	12
Helper: map operations (lookup, update, delete, timeseries push)	16
Helper: trace_printk	20
Unknown helper ID	8

The cost constants are described in source as conservative bounds calibrated against a 2026-06-11 Raspberry Pi 5 (Cortex-A76) run; the source also notes that trace_printk’s real cost is serial-I/O-bound and is not modeled by its weight, so it is banned by policy instead.

Two enforcement points use the result on the embedded profile:

Per-program budget (verifier). wcet_cycles above WCET_CYCLE_BUDGET (RT_PERIOD_NS / CYCLE_UNIT_NS, 1,000,000 / 6) is rejected with WcetExceeded. Any back edge is rejected with UnboundedLoop, and bpf_trace_printk with HelperForbiddenOnRtFragment. On the cloud profile the budget is u64::MAX and back edges are not rejected by this check; non-terminating exploration is bounded by MAX_INSN_COUNT per path (InfiniteLoop) and the state budget.
Utilization admission (kernel, at attach). AdmissionLedger::admit adds wcet_cycles * CYCLE_UNIT_NS * freq_hz nanoseconds of CPU per second for the attachment, and refuses (AdmissionRejected) if the total would exceed UTILIZATION_BUDGET_NS_PER_S (500,000,000 on embedded, i.e. half a core). Detach releases exactly what attach committed. BpfManager::hook_frequency_hz assumes every hook fires at the control-loop rate (1 kHz on embedded); per-hook frequencies are noted in source as future work. On cloud the frequency is 0 and the budget unbounded, so admission never rejects.

This is a load-time utilization ledger, not an EDF scheduler. Whether the cost model’s units match real execution time on a given board is a calibration question the source itself leaves open (CYCLE_UNIT_NS is described as rounded up from a measured value); treat the budgets as policy constants, not proven timing guarantees.

Limits summary

Limit	Cloud	Embedded	Source
Instructions	1,000,000	100,000	`PhysicalProfile::MAX_INSN_COUNT`
Stack	512 KiB	8 KiB	`MAX_STACK_SIZE`
WCET per program	unbounded	about 166,666 units	`WCET_CYCLE_BUDGET`
Verifier recorded states	8192 total, 64 per pc	same	`StatePruner`
Subprogram call depth	8	8	loader `normalize`
Raw `BPF_PROG_LOAD` instruction count	4096	4096	`sys_bpf`
ELF payload	1 MiB	1 MiB	`BpfLimits::max_elf_bytes`

Selected `VerifyError` variants

InvalidOpcode, InvalidRegister, UninitializedRegister, OutOfBoundsAccess, InvalidMemoryAccess, UnreachableInstruction, InfiniteLoop, StateLimitExceeded, InvalidJump, NoExit, EmptyProgram, InvalidHelper, HelperRequiresPrivilege, ActuationCapabilityRequired, LoggingHelperForbidden, PointerLeakUnprivileged, HelperNotAvailable, InvalidMapId, WriteToReadOnlyMap, WriteMapNotProvablyWritable, HelperArgCount, HelperArgType, DivisionByZero, StackExceeded, InsnCountExceeded, WriteToReadOnly, MisalignedAccess, WcetExceeded, InterruptUnsafe, DynamicAllocationAttempted, UnboundedLoop, HelperForbiddenOnRtFragment. Every variant carries the failing instruction index where one applies.

Assurance

The fuzz targets verify_only (termination and no panics) and verify_then_exec (a verified program must execute without panicking in the interpreter) exercise this code; the fuzz README states the PR smoke job runs verify_only for 60 seconds and a weekly job runs longer campaigns. Building the kernel with the verifier-cost feature emits per-load cost markers on the UART.